STRATEGIES IN QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION

Steps in the Process of Data Collection :

1.Determining the participant to study

2.Obtaining permission needed from several individuals and organization

3.Considering what types of information to collect from several sources, available to the quantitative research

4.Locating and selecting instrument to use

5.Administering the data collection process to collect data

Population and Sample

Population : a group of individual who have the same characteristics

Sample : a subgroup of the target population that the researcher plans to study for generalizing about the target population.

1 Probability Sampling: the researcher selects individual from the population who are representative of that population

a. Simple random sampling : the researcher selects participant for the sample so that any individual has an equal probability of being selected from the population.

b. Systematic sampling : the researcher choose every nth individual or site in the population until the researchers reaches the desired sample size

c. Stratified sampling : the researcher divides (stratify) the population on some specific characteristic and then using simple random sampling, sampling from population.

d. Multistage cluster sampling : the researcher chooses a sample in two or more stages because either the researcher cannot easily identify the population is extremely large

2. Non Probability Sampling: the researcher selects individuals because they are available, convenient, and represent some characteristic the investigator seeks to study.

a. Convenience sampling : the researcher selects participant because they are willing and available to be studied.

b. Snowball sampling : the researcher asks participants to identify others to become members of

sample size : the larger the sample the less the potential error is that the sample will be different from the population.

What permission will the researcher need ?

1.The purpose of the study

2.The amount of time the researcher will be at the site collecting data

3.The time required of participants

4.How the researcher will use the data or result

5.State specific activities that will be conducted

6.The benefits to the organization or the individual because of the study.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability means that scores from an instrument are stable and consistent. Scores should be nearly the same when researchers administer the instrument multiple times at different times. Also, scores need to be consistent. When an individual answers certain questions one way, the individual should consistently answer closely related questions in the same way.

Validity is the development of sound evidence to demonstrate that the test interpretation (of scores about the concept or construct that the test is assumed to measure) matches its proposed use.

Types of Reliability

No	Form of Reliability	Number of Times Instrument Administered	Number of Different Versions of the Instrument	Number of Individuals Who Provide Information
1	Test–retest reliability	Twice at different time intervals	One version of the instrument	Each participant in the study completes the instrument twice.
2	Alternate forms reliability	Each instrument administered once	Two different versions of the same concept or variable	Each participant in the study completes each instrument.
3	Alternate forms and test– retest reliability	Twice at different time intervals	Two different versions of the same concept or variable	Each participant in the study completes each instrument.
4	Interrater reliability	Instrument administered once	One version of the instrument	More than one individual observes behavior of the participants.
5	Internal consistency reliability	Instrument administered once	One version of the instrument	Each participant in the study completes the instrument .

Sources of Validity Evidence and Examples

No	Validity Evidence	Types of Tests or Instruments to Which Validity Evidence Is Applicable	Type of Evidence Sought	Examples of Evidence
1	Evidence based on test content	Achievement tests, credentialing tests, and employment tests	Evidence of an analysis of the test’s content (e.g., themes, wording, format) and the construct it is intended to measure	• Examine logical or empirical evidence (e.g., syllabi, textbooks, teachers’ lesson plans) • Have experts in the area judge
2	Evidence based on response processes	Tests that assess cognitive processes, rate behaviors, and require observations	Evidence of the fi t between the construct and how individuals taking the test actually performed	• Interviews with individuals taking tests to report what they experienced/were thinking • Interviews or other data with observers to determine if they are all responding to the same stimulus in the same way
3	Evidence based on internal structure	Applicable to all tests	Evidence of the relationship among test items, test parts, and the dimensions of the test	• Statistical analysis to determine if factor structure (scales) relates to theory, correlation of items
4	Evidence based on relations to other variables	Applicable to all tests	Evidence of the relationship of test scores to variables external to the test	• Correlations of scores with tests measuring the same or different constructs (convergent/discriminant validity) • Correlations with scores and some external criterion (e.g., performance assessment—test-criterion validity) • Correlations of tests scores and their prediction of a criterion based on cumulative databases (called meta analysis— validity generalization)
5	Evidence based on the consequences of testing	Applicable to all tests	Evidence of the intended and unintended consequences of the test	• Benefits of the test for positive treatments for therapy, for placement of workers in suitable jobs, for prevention of unqualified individuals from entering a profession, for improvement of classroom instructional practices, and so forth

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EX POST FACTO DESIGN

Ex-post facto research measures the relationship between two variables without manipulating the X-variables. While the experimental research starts from manipulating and controlling the independent X-variables and proceeds to observing the effect on the dependent variables, the Ex-Post Facto Research starts from identifying the existing conditions in x-variable (e.g., sex) and proceeds to finding the differences in Y- variable. If we observe that the students in a language department are dominated by female students, then we may conduct an Ex-post facto research to find out whether sex differences relate to different results in achievement. If we observe that most of the freshmen of the English Department graduating from State Senior High School achieve English skills better than those graduating from Private Senior High Schools, then we may want to conduct an Ex-post facto research to find out whether different high school backgrounds of the students show different students’ achievement in learning English skills.

This research design is also called Causal Comparative Research involving both continuous as well as discrete variables for the x-variables that have :

1.      Inherent characteristics (organismic) e.g., gender, ethnicity, personality traits

2.      Characteristics that should not be manipulated for ethical reasons, e.g., illegal drug use, cigarette smoking, or alcohol consumption,

3.      Characteristics that could be manipulated but that are not, e.g., school placement, social promotion to the next grade, or participation in psycho-therapy.

With discrete variables, causal comparative research design can be used to investigate the different academic achievements between male students and female students (x-sex variable), between Javanese students and Chinese students (x-ethnicity variable), between moslem female students and non moslem female students (x-religion variable), between students whose parents are school teachers or university lecturers and those whose parents are not school teachers or university lecturers (x-parents’ profession variables)

With continuous variables, causal Comparative research can be used to investigate the different academic achievements between students with high intelligence and low intelligence, between students from high socioeconomic background and low high socioeconomic background, between students whose parents are university graduates and those whose parents are high school graduates, etc.

Although the conclusions in Ex-post Facto Research or Causal Comparative Research show significant differences in the level of x-variables (e.g., a group of students with high self-concepts achieve significantly higher in their academic achievement than those with low self-concepts, a group of students whose parents are school teachers or university lecturers than those whose parents are not school teachers, a group of freshmen of the English Department graduating from state senior high schools semester English Intensive Course than those graduating from private senior high schools), since the research does not involve experimental manipulation of x-variables, the significance differences in the level of x-variables do not show confident proof of a cause-and-effect relationship.

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QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE APPROACHES AND LONGITUDINAL VS CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH

NO	QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH	QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1	Describing a research problem through a description of trends or a need for an explanation of the relationship among variables	Exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon
2	Providing a major role for the literature through suggesting the research questions to be asked and justifying the research problem and creating a need for the direction (purpose statement and research questions and hypotheses) of the study	Having the literature review paly a minor role but justify the problem
3	Creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are specific, narrow, measureable, and observable	Stating the purpose and research questions in a general and broad way so as to the participants’ experiences
4	Collecting numeric data from a large number of people using instruments with preset questions and responses	Collecting data based on words from a small number of individuals so that the participants’ view are obtained
5	Analyzing trends, comparing groups, or relating variables using statistical analysis	Analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting the larger meaning of the findings
6	Writing the research report using standard, fixed structures and evaluation criteria, and taking an objecting, unbiased approach	Writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluative criteria, and including the researchers’ subjective reflexivity and bias

A longitudinal survey design involves the survey procedure of collecting data about trends with the same population, changes in a cohort group or subpopulation, or changes in a panel group of the same individuals over time. Thus, in longitudinal designs, participants may be different or the same people. In a cross-sectional survey design, the researcher collects data at one point  in time.

 Longitudinal

1.      Trends Studies : Longitudinal survey designs that involve identifying a population and examining changes within that population overtime.

2.      Cohort Studies : Longitudinal survey design in which a researcher identifies a subpopulation based on the specific characteristic and then studies that subpopulation over time.

3.      Panel Studies : Longitudinal survey design in which the researcher examines the same people over time.

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RESEARCH AND PARADIGM, APPROACHES, METHODS (STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES)

Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. Research is important for three reasons:
1. Research adds to our knowledge. Adding to knowledge means that educators undertake research to contribute to existing information about issues.
2. Research improves practice. Research offers practicing educators new ideas to consider as they go about their job. Research also helps practitioners evaluate approaches that they hope will work with individuals in educational settings.
3. Research informs policy debates. Research also provides information to policy makers when they research and debate educational topics.
  Research Approach Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. three research approaches are advanced: (a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c) mixed methods. 
• Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. The final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of rendering the complexity of a situation. 
• Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion. Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the findings. 
• Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches provides a more complete understanding of a research problem than either approach alone.

Tend to or Typically..	Qualitative Approach	Quantitative Approach	Mixed Methods Approach
·   Use these philosophical assumption ·   Employ these strategies of enquiry	·    Constructivist/transformative knowledge claims ·    Phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, case study, and narrative	·      Post positivist knowledge claims ·      Surveys and experiments	·    Pragmatic knowledge claims ·    Sequential, concurrent, and transformative
·   Employ these methods	·    Open-ended questions, emerging approaches, test or image data	·       Closed-ended questions, predetermined approaches, numeric data	·      Both open- and closed-ended questions, both emerging and predetermined approaches, and both quantitative and qualitative data and analysis
·   Use these practices of research as the researcher	·     Positions him- or herself ·     Collects participant meanings ·     Focuses on a single concept or phenomenon ·     Brings personal values into the study ·     Studies the context or setting of participants ·     Validates the accuracy of findings ·     Makes interpretations of the data ·     Creates an agenda for change or reform ·     Collaborates with participants	·     Tests or verifies theories explanations ·     Identifies variables to study ·     Relates variables in questions or hypotheses ·     Uses standards of validity and reliability ·     Observes and measures information numerically ·     Uses unbiased approaches ·     Employs statistical procedures	·      Collects both quantitative and qualitative data ·      Develops a rationale for mixing ·      Integrates the data at different stages of inquiry ·      Presents visual pictures of the procedures in the study ·      Employs the practices of both qualitative and quantitative research

Research Method

Quantitative Methods	Mixed Methods	Qualitative Methods
Pre-determined	Both predetermined and emerging methods	Emerging methods
Instrument based questions	Both open- and closed-ended questions	Open-ended questions
Performance data, attitude data, observational data, and census data	Multiple forms of data drawing on all possibilities	Interview data, observation data, document data, and audiovisual data
Statistical analysis	Statistical and text analysis	Text and image analysis
Statistical interpretation	Across databases interpretation	Themes, patterns interpretation

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MoMo Clay.. Aneka Kreasi dari Clay

 

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