A. INTRODUCTION
It is always possible that our best
theories will be falsified tomorrow and so their status is that of conjectures
that have not yet been refuted rather than that of confirmed theories. Popper in
Ladyman (2002, p. 71) thought that it is here the intellectual corruption of
Marxists and psychoanalysts lies for whether or not their theories are
falsifiable-they do not state clearly the conditions under which they would
give up their theories. It is this commitment to their theories that Popper thinks
is unscientific. In fact, he demands of scientists that they specify in advance
under what experimental conditions they would give up their most basic
assumptions. For Popper, everything in science is provisional and subject to
correction or replacement.
The view that knowledge must be
certain, a matter of proof and not subject to error has a long history in
philosophy. However from Popper we learn that we should always have a critical
attitude to our best scientific theories. Scientists ought to aim to develop
theories that are as falsifiable as possible which means the theories need to
be both precise and have a broad content.
Our scientific knowledge does not
seem to be purely negative and if it were it would be hard to see why we have
such confidence in certain scientifically informed beliefs. The belief that
certain causes do indeed have certain effects and not that they might not is
what informs our actions. Of course, just when and how we can be justified on
the basis of experience in believing general laws and their consequences for
the future behavior of the natural world is the problem of induction. Most
philosophers, however think that solving this problem is not a matter of
deciding whether it is more rational to take the stairs but why it is more
rational to do so.
Popper’s response to the challenge
of is to introduce the notion of corroborations; a theory is corroborated if it
was a bold conjecture that made novel predictions that were not falsified.
Popper says that it is rational to suppose that the most corroborated theory is
true because we have tried to prove it false in various ways and failed. The
most corroborated theory is not one we have any reason to think is false, so it
is rational to use it in making plans for the future, like leaving a building
by the stairs and not by jumping. Popper stresses that the fact that a theory
is corroborated only means that it invites further challenges.
B. PREVIOUS RESEARCH
In 2005, I conducted a research
under the title “Improving Students’ Speaking Skill by Using Contextual
Teaching and Learning in the University of Kanjuruhan Malang”. I conducted the
classroom action research because the English syllabus has been revised on 2003
namely School-Based Curriculum to keep up with the globalization era. The
objectives of English language teaching are not only used for a set of rules,
but it is also emphasized on the use for communication.
Based on my observation for the students
on the second semester in Kanjuruhan University, student’s speaking ability was
still unsatisfying. They were still passive and unmotivated to speak English.
That was supported by results of pre-test that have been done before the research.
The average score of pre test was still 10,64 in a 0-24 scale. None of the
students reached the passing minimum score.
According to Cahyono, (1997, p.2) the
passiveness of the students was caused by internal and external factors.
Internal factors cover lack of motivation, lack of vocabularies reluctant to
express the ideas, while external factors cover no variation of teaching
methods, large class and an interesting topic.
Considering the above condition, I
developed the students’ speaking skill through Contextual Teaching and
Learning. Contextual teaching and learning, an instructional system, is based
on the premise that the meaning emerges from the relationship between content
and its context. Context gives the meaning to content. The broader context within
which students are able to make connections, the more meaning content will hold
for them. A great part of the teacher’s
job, then, is to provide context. The more students are able to connect their
academic lessons to this context, the more meaning they will derive from these
lessons. To discover meaning in knowledge and skills leads to mastery of
knowledge and skills.
According to Johnsons (2002, p.3)
Contextual Teaching and Learning engages students in significant activities
that help them connect academic studies to their context in real-life
situations. By making these connections, students see meaning in school work.
When students formulate projects or identify interesting problems, when they
make choices and accept responsibility, search out information and reach
conclusions, when they actively choose, order, organize, touch, plan,
investigate, question and make decisions to reach objectives, they connect
academic content and context of life’s situations, and in this way discover
meaning. The discovery of meaning is the central characteristics of Contextual
Teaching and Learning.
This research was expected to give both
theoretical and practical contributions to the teaching of speaking.
Theoretical contribution relates to the principle of language learning that
Contextual teaching and Learning can promote communicative competence and
generate fluency in a second language learning. Practical contribution relates
to the advantages of Contextual Teaching and Learning implementation for
language learning. For the students, the use of Contextual Teaching and
Learning will provide them with a learning atmosphere that encourage the
students to be actively involved in the learning activities and improve
students’ speaking skill ability in English.
Based on the reflection and data
obtained during the action, I concluded the components of Contextual Teaching
and Learning have been applied successfully in this research. Those components
were Making Connection to Find Meaning, Self Regulated Learning, Collaboration,
Creative Thinking and Authentic Assessment. The students were able to make
connection to find meaning, learning regulate, collaborate and think creative.
Firstly, based on the reflection in
Cycle 2, it could be said that the first indicator for the criteria of success
had fulfilled. The result of students’ response toward Contextual Teaching and
Learning implementation was satisfying.
Concerning with students’ opinion
whether, 18 students (72%) out of 25 students stated that Contextual Teaching and Learning really helped to improve the communication in English, 6
students (24%) answered helped and 1 students (4%) stated did not help. It
meant that the first indicator of this study met the criteria of success: the
students were active and motivated to communicate after the implementation
of Contextual Teaching and Learning.
Secondly, based on the result of
post-test was 16,84. This score has reached the passing minimum score, it was
16 for pronunciation and fluency in a 0-24 scale. It meant that the second
indicator of this study fulfilled the criteria of success.
Before the treatment of the action the
pre-test average score was 10,64. After the action in Cycle 1 there were an
improvement of the average score was 14,92. At last, the average score of
post-test in cycle 2 reached 16,84. Thus, during the action in cycle 1 and
cycle 2 the students’ speaking achievement had increased.
In short, concerning with the research
problem stated in this study, it proved that the implementation of Contextual
Teaching and Learning strategy could improve the students’ speaking skill.
Although there were some considerations concerning with the implementation of
Contextual Teaching and Learning strategy, i.e. group selection, teacher’s and
collaborator’s participation, noisy class. Finally, this action had fulfilled
the criteria of success and the cycle stopped.
C. REFLECTION
In implementing classroom action
research (CAR) has some weaknesses, CAR
cannot be generalized because it only solves the current problems in the class.
CAR also spends a lot of time because we cannot decide how many cycles that the
research finds the criteria of success. In my previous research I improved the
students’ speaking skill by using Contextual Teaching and Learning. I only
focused to improve their fluency and pronunciation in the speaking aspect.
Meanwhile according to Djiwandono (1996, p.133) there are four aspects in
taking the score on the speaking performance, they are grammar, vocabulary,
fluency and pronunciation. I did not improve how the students’ communication
strategy when they spoke to the interlocutors.
Communication problems occur when the
encoded message differs from the decoded message. In other words, the message
sent is not the message received. In daily communicative interaction,
communication strategies are often used as communication is basically
functional. Communication is not just what a message is about but what it wants
to achieve.
Foreign language learners may encounter
various communication problems when their inter language is limited. In order
to convey their messages and remain in a conversation until their communication
goal is achieved, ESL (English as a Second Language) learners need to employ
communication strategies, which have been defined generally as devices used by
second language learners to overcome perceived barriers to achieving specific
communication goals (Faerch & Kasper, 1983).
Miscommunication occurs when one
interprets communicative rules of one culture in terms of the rules of another
culture. In the process of learning a second language, learners make some
errors due to first language interference. By knowing strategies to avoid
misinterpretation between different backgrounds of speakers, the problems
mentioned before shall be avoided easily.
D. THE NEXT RESEARCH
RELATED TO RATIONALITY
According to Kuhn in Ladyman (2002,
p.98), the evaluation of theories depends on local historical circumstances,
and his analysis of the relationship between theory and observation suggests
that theories infect data to such an extent that no way of gathering of
observations can ever be theory neutral and objective. Hence, the degree of
confirmation an experiment gives to hypothesis is not objective, and there is
no single logic of theory testing that can be used to determine which theory is
most justified by the evidence.
Based on my previous research that still
has many weaknesses especially in the communication problem in the next
research I would like to measure the effect of topic familiarity on the
students’ communication strategy.
Communication strategies are usually
associated with spoken language and research has shown that students tend to
use various communication strategies when they are unable to express what they
want to say because of their lack of resources in their second language (L2)
(Hedge, in Lai 2010).
Chang (2006) revealed that while reading
comprehension monitoring efforts were motivated by both topic familiarity and
linguistic difficulty, inferencing events were primarily facilitated by topic
familiarity. Pulido (2007) also found that familiarity of the learners with the
topics of the reading tasks leads to better comprehension of the texts. Combs
(2008) revealed that neither typographically enhanced text nor the topic
familiarity training had a significant impact on the acquisition of form.
Schmidt-Rinehart (1994) indicated that the subjects scored considerably higher
on the familiar topic than on the new one. In a similar study, Sadighi and Zare
(2002) provided some evidence in support of the effect of background knowledge
on listening comprehension. Othman and Vanathas (2004) also indicated that
topic familiarity has an influence on listening comprehension. Chang & Read
(2007) also revealed that providing background knowledge and familiarizing the
learners with the listening tasks’ topics is the most effective support for
listening comprehension of the EFL learners. Rahimpour and Hazar (2007)
revealed that the topic familiarity had a positive effect on accuracy and
fluency of participants’ oral output but it had a negative effect on complexity
of their oral performance. Hayati (2009) concluded that familiarity of the
language learners with culturally-oriented language material promotes the
Iranian EFL learners’ listening proficiency.
As it can be concluded from the results
of the above mentioned studies that have been done on the effects of topic
familiarity or prior knowledge on L2 learners’ reading and listening
comprehension, in most of them, it has positive effects on reading and
listening proficiency. However, according to Rahimpour and Hazar (2007), it is
necessary to consider topic familiarity as a task feature in syllabus design
and materials development. So, because of its importance in topic-based language
teaching, there is a need to consider the effects of topic familiarity on four
language skills.
The significance of the research here,
theoretically it will contribute to more understanding of the communication
strategy. The result of this study hopefully will enrich the body of knowledge
about how topic familiarity influences the students’ communication strategy in
EFL context, more specifically in Indonesia. Practically, the finding of this
research will give contribution to the ELT teachers and learners in Indonesia
about the effect of topic familiarity on communication strategy.
E. CONCLUSION
In the falsification stated by
Popper we can conclude that the corroborated theory is important to support the
next plan for the research. The previous research that I conducted in 2005 had
some weaknesses especially in improving speaking skill therefore I would like
to concern with communication strategies. But the theory of contextual teaching
and learning supports me to measure the effect of topic familiarity on the
students’ communication strategy. Based on the theory on the rationality, Kuhn
in Ladyman (2002, p. 121) guides me to have paradigms about theory that should
be accurate, consistent, wide in the scope, simple and fruitful.
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